Fig. 1

Study area. a) Overview of Mongolia with position of the map shown in b) (black rectangle). b) Location of the study area in the forest-steppe of northern central Mongolia. Forest distribution was adapted from Klinge et al. (2018), burnt forest area (2000–2018) was adapted from Hansen et al. (2013). The digital elevation model (DEM) was created from SRTM (Shuttle Radar Topography Mission) data. The black rectangle in b) indicates the position of the image shown in c). c) True-colour satellite image of the study area near Tosontsengel (Landsat 8, September 22, 2014)