Table 1 Major silvicultural and forest management approaches in Europe and North America. They are grouped into five categories: timber-oriented, nature-based, global change, landscape, and conceptual. These general banners reflect the main features of the approaches as defined in the associated literature. Each approach is classified according to their main management goals (maximum two), as taken from literature. Additional benefits that might be achieved but are not targeted themselves are marked with a cross. For instance, the main objective of uneven-aged forestry is to produce large volumes of timber, but the maintenance of ecological diversity is also considered important in this approach (Nolet et al. 2017)

Stand-level

 Even-aged stand systems

1

+

X

X

Kuuluvainen et al. 2012; Nolet et al. 2017

 Uneven-aged stand systems

1

+

+

+

+

X

X

Kuuluvainen et al. 2012; Nolet et al. 2017

 Short-rotation forestry

1

X

X

Weih 2004

 Close-to-nature forestry

2

+

+

1

X

Jacobsen 2001; Bauhus et al. 2013

 Continuous cover

1

+

2

X

Pommerening and Murphy 2004

 Retention systems

1

2

+

+

X

X

Mitchell and Beese 2002; Lindenmayer et al. 2012

 Ecological forestry

1

2

+

X

Seymour and Hunter 1999; Franklin et al. 2007

 Adaptive silviculture

2

1

+

X

Nagel et al. 2017; Halofsky et al. 2018

 Climate-smart forestry

+

2

1

X

Nabuurs et al. 2017

Landscape-level

Sustainable yield forestry

1

X

X

Wiersum 1995

Functional zoning

2

+

+

1

X

Seymour and Hunter 1992; Messier et al. 2009

Ecosystem management

1

2

+

+

X

Kohm and Franklin 1997; Bergeron et al. 1999

Sustainable forestry

+

2

+

+

1

+

X

X

Aplet et al. 1993; Oliver 2003

Multi-purpose forestry

1

+

+

2

+

X

X

Lexer and Brooks 2005

Conceptual-level

New forestry

1

+

2

X

Franklin 1989

Holistic forestry

2

+

1

X

Pinkerton 1998

Systemic silviculture

+

1

2

X

Ciancio and Nocentini 2011