Fig. 4

Relationships between economic, environmental, and forest management effects on the abundance of non-migratory and migratory bird species in Central Europe from 1980 to 2014. Variables are grouped into the latent variables Economy, Environment, Forest Management, and for each group of birds (non-migrants, continental migrants, regional migrants). The direction and strength of relationships between the original variables and the respective latent variables are indicated by a solid line and standardized path coefficient. Significant path coefficients are represented as black arrows. Grey arrows indicate non–significant path coefficients. Note that ‘non-migrants’ correspond to those presented in Fig. 3. For bird genera see Methods Table 1