Fig. 3

Relationships between economic, environmental, and forest management and effects on abundance of non-migratory forest birds in Central Europe from 1980 to 2014. Variables are grouped into the latent variables Economy, Environment, Forest Management, and Bird Abundance. The direction and strength of relationships between the original variables and the respective latent variables are indicated by a solid line and standardized path coefficient. Significant path coefficients are represented as black arrows. Grey arrows indicate non–significant path coefficients. For bird genera see methods